Parenthood is associated with changes in women’s health that are not seen in men, including reduced exercise and differences in wellbeing, new research has revealed.

Men’s health indicators varied only slightly depending on whether they were fathers, while the number and age of children were linked to changes in women’s health.

Anna Barbuscia, of the OPIK research group at the EHU-University of the Basque Country, said sharing parental responsibilities more equally could help reduce these differences.

Having children can bring significant biological, psychological and social changes, but the study found that the effects varied considerably between women and men.

Barbuscia said: “Having children has greater consequences for the health of the mother, both in the short and long term.

“This is not only because of the biological changes as a result of the pregnancy and birth, but also the psychological consequences. Our findings show a significant gender gap.”

The study, carried out by the OPIK research group, examined the relationship between motherhood and fatherhood and several health indicators.

These included psychological wellbeing, perceived health, physical exercise, alcohol consumption and smoking.

The researchers also considered whether the number and age of participants’ children influenced these indicators.

“It was observed that, in men, neither the fact of being a father, nor family characteristics, affected the health indicators. All parameters remained practically the same,” said Barbuscia.

The findings showed a different pattern among women, with the number and age of their children associated with changes in health and wellbeing.

Mothers with only one child and those with adolescent children reported more depressive symptoms.

Women living with two or more young children reported a better perception of their overall health.

“Caring for younger children usually demands greater physical effort, which may result in increased tiredness and poorer quality sleep.

“Adolescence, on the other hand, has traditionally been considered the most stressful phase for both mothers and fathers,” Barbuscia said.

The study also found a significant gender difference in physical activity.

Women generally did less regular physical exercise than men, and the gap widened when they had children.

“Only 16 per cent of mothers with young children do regular exercise, compared to 30 per cent of women who do not have children.

“In men, however, again, there was scarcely any difference between those who are fathers and those who are not,” Barbuscia said.

“This all indicates that maternity reduces the time available for personal care, which has an impact on a habit as important for health as physical activity.”

Barbuscia said the findings should be considered when designing family policies and planning healthcare services.

“Facilitating work-family balance is not enough. It is also necessary to ensure that mothers have time to look after their own health and wellbeing. Investing in this time is investing in health.”

She added that sharing parental responsibilities more equally between mothers and fathers could help reduce the inequalities observed.

“If we want to build healthy families and encourage people to have children, we need to start by ensuring that raising children does not have such an unequal impact on men and women.”

Contrast-enhanced mammography (CEM) has shown promise for women at higher risk of breast cancer, with follow-up screening showing greater specificity and accuracy.

Cancer detection rates remained consistent during repeat screening, while specificity improved compared with baseline examinations.

Specificity shows how accurately a test identifies people who do not have the disease, helping to reduce unnecessary follow-up procedures.

Researchers at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center analysed 6,911 contrast-enhanced mammography screens carried out among 2,756 women between 2015 and 2021.

Contrast-enhanced mammography, or CEM, combines standard mammography with an injected contrast agent that highlights areas of increased blood flow. Cancerous tumours often develop a greater blood supply.

The team compared 1,575 baseline screens with 3,336 incidence screens.

The researchers classified a screen as baseline if the woman had no previous CEM or had not undergone breast MRI in the previous three years.

Incidence screens were follow-up examinations carried out after previous screening.

After adjusting for the number of screens each woman received, the researchers found no statistically significant difference in cancer detection rates between the groups.

However, specificity reached 91.5 per cent during incidence screening, compared with 83.4 per cent for baseline screening.

Overall accuracy was also higher for incidence screening, at 91.4 per cent compared with 83.5 per cent.

“The ability of contrast-enhanced mammography to help detect cancer during prevalence screening in women at increased risk for breast cancer is maintained in subsequent incidence screens, with better specificity and accuracy,” the research team wrote.

Baseline screening detected 19 cancers per 1,000 examinations, compared with 11.6 per 1,000 incidence screens.

Sensitivity, which measures how well a test identifies people who have a disease, was 87.1 per cent for baseline screening and 86.1 per cent for incidence screening.

Contrast enhancement alone helped detect 18 of the 30 cancers found during baseline screening and 36 of the 62 found during incidence screening.

The researchers also identified 14 interval cancers across the examinations, with no evidence of a difference between the two groups.

An interval cancer is diagnosed after a screening result appears normal but before the next scheduled examination.

The retrospective study used previously collected clinical records rather than following participants in a newly designed trial.

The researchers described CEM as a reasonable screening tool for women with dense breasts.

Dense breasts contain more fibrous and glandular tissue, which can make cancer more difficult to detect with standard mammography.

CEM has previously shown greater sensitivity than ultrasound, digital mammography and digital breast tomosynthesis, according to the article.

Digital breast tomosynthesis takes several low-dose X-ray images from different angles to create a three-dimensional view of breast tissue.

The technique also takes less time and generally costs less than breast MRI, with previous research suggesting its performance is not inferior to MRI.

CEM is currently used for some screening purposes outside its approved indications.

The researchers said it could also help address health inequalities affecting women who face barriers to accessing MRI.

“In addition, women have reported a preference for CEM over MRI,” they wrote.

The researchers said a future article would provide full details about the interval cancers identified in the study.

An accompanying editorial said the technique could become a practical part of breast cancer screening for selected groups, although challenges remain around wider adoption.

“Whether this potential ultimately translates into widespread implementation will depend on future studies evaluating not only diagnostic performance, but also patient outcomes, health care utilisation, and real-world feasibility across diverse practice settings,” wrote Dr Vivianne Aguilera Freitas of the University of Toronto.

Premature menopause is linked to a higher risk of developing high blood pressure, according to a study of more than 107,000 women.

The risk was highest among women who reached menopause between the ages of 25 and 35.

Researchers said the findings support earlier cardiovascular screening for women who reach menopause before the age of 40.

Dr Stephanie Faubion, medical director for The Menopause Society, said: “The results of this study highlight the potential adverse long-term health outcomes associated with premature menopause, and in particular, the need to regularly screen for cardiovascular risk factors such as hypertension.

“Use of hormone therapy is also routinely recommended in women with premature menopause at least until the natural age of menopause unless contraindications exist.”

Hormonal changes during menopause are known to affect women’s wider health, while earlier menopause has previously been linked to coronary heart disease and stroke.

Coronary heart disease develops when the blood vessels supplying the heart become narrowed or blocked.

However, previous evidence directly linking the timing of menopause to high blood pressure has been mixed.

High blood pressure, also known as hypertension, puts extra strain on the heart and blood vessels and can increase the risk of heart disease and stroke.

Researchers said it can be difficult to separate the direct effects of hormonal changes from factors that often accompany menopause, including weight gain, metabolic changes and other cardiovascular risks.

Metabolic changes affect how the body processes and uses energy, including sugar and fat.

The study analysed data from 107,836 postmenopausal women who joined the UK Biobank between 2006 and 2010. They were followed for a median of almost 15 years.

Researchers divided the women into three groups based on their age at menopause: after 45, between 40 and 45, or before 40.

They also examined whether menopause occurred naturally or followed surgery.

During the follow-up period, 18,508 women, or 17.2 per cent, were diagnosed with high blood pressure.

The proportion increased as the age at menopause fell. Hypertension developed in 16.6 per cent of women who experienced menopause after 45, compared with 18.8 per cent of those who reached menopause between 40 and 45.

Among women who experienced menopause before 40, 22.6 per cent developed the condition.

After taking account of more than 50 factors, including weight, lifestyle habits, family history and laboratory results, premature menopause remained linked to a 12.3 per cent higher risk of hypertension than menopause after age 45.

Further analysis suggested the risk peaked among women who reached menopause between the ages of 25 and 35.

The researchers said this may mean that the cardiovascular risk associated with premature menopause is concentrated among a younger group than the conventional under-40 definition suggests.

Surgical menopause was initially linked to higher rates of hypertension, but the association was no longer significant after other risk factors were taken into account.

The authors said clinicians should consider age at menopause as a distinct cardiovascular risk factor, particularly for women who experience it before 40.

They also called for earlier detection and management of hypertension, alongside individual discussions about hormone therapy.

Hormone therapy replaces hormones that decline during menopause and may be recommended for some women, depending on their individual health and medical history.